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| Learning Communities Annotated Bibliography |
Participants at the Inclusive Learning Communities Conference, hosted by UW-Madison's Foundation Coalition (FC) on November 17-18, 1998, stated a need for sources on learning communities which could serve a variety of needs including: convince faculty and administrators of the value of a learning community on their campus; inform innovators of how to implement and support a learning community on their campus; and inform faculty about optimal teaching/learning strategies for a learning community. For this reason, the UW-Madison FC Assessment and Evaluation team has put together the following bibliography. To help the reader locate sources that meet their particular interests and needs, many of the articles and books are annotated. We note that this is a collection of sources about learning communities, not a recommended reading list. We cannot make claims as to the quality of each source listed in this document.
This article explores multicultural and inclusion issues for teaching in undergraduate education. The author provides guidelines for dealing with diversity issues in the classroom and for promoting awareness of dominant culture. The author suggests that a barrier to inclusiveness is the inability of teachers to recognize the influence of dominant culture in shaping their teaching.
This article provides a discussion of curricular integration. The learning community or curriculum integration movement, as it operates in many community colleges is about training people for work. It is also about changing the way teachers teach, making connections across curriculum, and articulating programs with workplace situations and skills. The writer outlines the obstacles to curriculum integration at the postsecondary level and describes curriculum integration at Henry Ford Community College in Dearborn, Michigan. ii
This book provides an overview of multicultural education from a theoretical as well as practical stance. The author discusses specific teaching strategies and issues related to teaching with a multicultural agenda or philosophy.
This article was adapted from the John Dewey Society Memorial Lecture delivered at the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development's annual conference in San Antonio, Texas. It discusses how a democratic curriculum should bring diverse groups of young people together in learning communities where they can live and work in democratic ways and where their diversity is a valued aspect of the group. It should focus on topics that are of significance to young people and should offer them a chance to critique existing knowledge and construct new meanings. It should respect the knowledge and experience that they bring with them to school. The aim of implementing such a curriculum would be to inspire young people to imagine a better world.ii
This article presents an outline of a set of principles for the design of effective learning communities. There are 14 principles in all: the community-growth principle, the emergent-goals principle, the articulation-of-goals principle, the metacognitive principle, the beyond-the-bounds principle, the respect-for-others principle, the failure-safe principle, the structural-dependence principle, the depth-over-breadth principle, the diverse-expertise principle, the multiple-ways-to-participate principle, the sharing principle, the negotiation principle, and the quality-of-products principle.ii
In this article the author describes processes of a learning organization. She provides various definitions of the learning organization, discusses the leadership implications of the process of the learning organization, describes the creation of infrastructure supportive of learning, and describes the creation of learning partnerships. ii
This workbook focuses on many issues relating to diversity in higher education. It provides worksheets and activities for teachers interested in creating an inclusive climate.
This interview with Henry M. Levin--David Jacks Professor of Higher Education and Affiliated Professor of Economics at Stanford University--discusses how Levin's approach to building learning communities in the schools can transform the educational experience for both student and teacher. Through Levin's approach, children are exposed to rich experiences in a school environment which is purposefully connected with the children's experiences--their culture and their community.
This article focuses on Drexel University's revision of their first- and second-year curriculum. The revised curriculum includes team-teaching, interdisciplinary courses, introducing students to their majors earlier and having students work in small groups. The pilot program in engineering has been successful at improving education and boosting retention.
The author of this article proposes different approaches to teaching that promote awareness of diversity. The article also provides a discussion of issues that students face when presented with an non-inclusive learning environment.
The author discusses ways in which parents, college students, and high school students can enrich the work of any community of learners. ii
The author asserts that reform initiatives that do not address a school's culture as well as its structure are unlikely to significantly affect student achievement. When educators engage in a deliberate and sustained attempt to communicate stories that express, amplify, and validate the principles of a learning community, schools are more likely to act as professional learning communities.ii
This article reports on the impact of a Freshman Learning Community Program (FLCP) for undergraduate engineering students. Formative evaluation in critical to the on-going improvement of the program. The learning community consists of an integrated curriculum and cohorts of students that move through the course sequence together. Formative, qualitative evaluation of the program suggested ways in which the program was not as successful as it could be. This data was used to inform program changes.
This issue is focused exclusively on learning communities in higher education. The articles cover foundations and models of learning communities, issues of implementation, student and faculty experiences, roles and goals, and additional resources.
Democracy and difference : emerging concepts of identity, diversity, and community / Richard Guarasci, Grant H. Cornwell -- Community-based learning and intercultural citizenship / Richard Guarasci -- Finding community across boundaries : service learning in women's studies / Mary K. Trigg, Barbara J. Balliet -- Residential colleges : laboratories for teaching through difference / Grant H. Cornwell, Eve Stoddard -- Learning communities : collaborative approaches to engaging differences / Roberta S. Matthews, Daniel J. Lynch -- Intergroup relations, conflict, and community / DavidSchoem -- Liberal education as intercultural praxis : citizenship in a diverse democracy / Richard Guarasci, Grant H. Cornwell. iv
The writers claim that North American staff developers can learn from their Asian counterparts about the creation of learning communities. The development of communities of learners in both school and staff development settings has been advocated by North American educators. In Asian cultures, spiritual connection and community are still important objectives. The development of communities of learners in North America necessitates that lost rituals be rediscovered, current rituals be identified and retained, and new rituals be developed. Rituals can be incorporated into any step of a staff development program. Rituals that are used by staff developers in Asia to foster learning communities are presented. ii
The authors examine the systematic design of a graduate-level unit of instruction on analyzing prejudice created specifically for delivery on the Internet. The article discusses the analysis, design, development, and formative evaluation of the interactive World Wide Web site, illustrating how models and theories of human learning and instructional design were used to develop the innovative program. Emphasis is placed on strategies used to promote interactivity, active learning, and the development of learning communities. Reflections concerning the tools and techniques applied during the program development serve as guidelines for future development. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. ii
The author presents an outline of six principles for setting up seamless learning environments for undergraduates. The principles aim to guide institutional efforts to enhance student learning and personal development by more intentionally integrating curricular goals and outcomes with students' experiences outside the classroom. The principles relate to generating enthusiasm for institutional renewal, creating a common vision of learning, developing a common language, facilitating collaboration and cross-functional dialogue, investigating the influence of student cultures on student learning, and focusing on systemic change. The implications for student affairs professionals and for graduate preparation programs are described.ii
The University of Akron's Increasing Diversity in Engineering Academics program seeks to retain minority engineering students by emphasizing competence and diversity and forming collaborative learning communities focused on excellence, not remediation. Features include learning contracts, peer counseling, freshman transition activities, a study center and financial incentives.
Establishing communities of learners creates an environment with the potential to advance a whole society. Higher education as a community must intentionally devise learning communities that promote and maximize both on-site and distance learning. Primary membership and primary form of interaction are important dimensions of learning communities for higher education, and curricular learning communities, classroom learning communities, residential learning communities, and student-type learning communities are the basic learning community categories that higher education must consider. Research suggests that effective learning communities provide significant benefits for students and faculty. Extensive advice for creating and implementing optimal student learning communities is provided, and the future of learning communities is discussed.ii
A study examined 16 educational reform networks that represented a range of purposes, locations, participants, and modes of operations. The results showed that networks allowed members to contribute to and gain access to "just in time" learning, as well as to grapple with problems in greater depth and complexity. Networks had the flexibility to create activities first and then develop the structures to support those activities. The networks also replaced prescription and compliance with involvement in problem posing, sharing, and solving; dialogue on actions and consequences; and a culture that promoted continuous inquiry. Much of the network was characterized as facilitating, brokering, and linking, rather than leading. Organizational tensions that occurred consistently involved negotiating between network purpose and the dailiness of activities, between "inside knowledge" and "outside knowledge," between centralization and decentralization, between informal/flexible and formal/rigid, and between inclusivity and exclusivity.ii
Institutional policies governing student conduct have become increasingly legalistic and procedural over the last few decades. In their bid to respect student rights, institutions have lost sight of the responsibilities of membership in higher education communities. As well as protecting student rights, colleges and universities must also strive to create communities of justice and principles. Some of the methods currently being explored to balance individual responsibilities in an educational environment are creeds, community standards, and learning communities.ii
The author discusses the use of an email distribution list, in her Psychology of Women course, which effectively extended the boundaries of communication and dispersed authority by challenging dominant forms of authority in a traditional classroom. She uses examples of student discussion--via e-mail--to illustrate the effects of this method.
Inquiry-based professional and staff development transforms how participants view their roles as teachers, program leaders, and colleagues. Considerable evidence indicates that practitioners in these collegial communities actively look for opportunities to include others in comparably rich field-based professional development. These learning communities reinforce professional networks and support practitioners' leadership efforts beyond the local context. Meaningful change happens when field-based practitioners, frequently in association with learners, have an opportunity to systematically study the issues they see as important. ii
The writers discuss how educators can help students and teachers create interactive World Wide Web (WWW) sites. They review some of the current professional literature on the use of the WWW in the classroom. The writers explain some of the advantages of helping students place their writing on the WWW in terms of leteracy development theories and community of learners perspectives. They describe their efforts in helping preservice teachers to create interactive Web sites and to place six different types of coauthored or individually written literacy-related lessons or projects on the WWW. The writers offer practical and time-saving advice for educators who wish to help their students create interactive Web sites. ii
The author discusses the characteristics of learning communities, specifically, the ease with which they can be adapted to local existing structures--thereby making them relatively inexpensive. Characteristics of learning communities, which the author discusses, include the following: small size; means for students primary educational experience; sense of purpose; interactive faculty participants--promoting continuity and integration of curriculum; and strong group identity.
Collaborative and cooperative learning traditions have developed apart from each other, with practitioners of each approach lacking information about the other school of thought. If both traditions can learn more about the other, a field of research and practice that encompasses both types of learning could emerge. The writers discuss how collaborative and cooperative learning at the college level are different and identify the areas of agreement between the two views. Reading materials about collaborative and cooperative learning are listed. ii
In an excerpt from the Handbook on the Undergraduate Curriculum, the writers discuss learning communities as a structure for educational coherence. A growing body of literature suggests that factors beyond the form and content of the curriculum create powerful educational settings for undergraduate students. Learning communities establish rich and rigorous learning environments, active participation by students and faculty, and a sense of community, all of which make a positive difference in fostering students' success. Learning communities link course or coursework around a theme in order to provide students with greater coherence in what they are learning and to increase intellectual interaction with faculty members and students. The success of learning communities shows that educational reform initiatives can be created that depend more upon the development of communities of people than the huge infusion of new resources. ii
College and university learning communities build a sense of group identity. Institutions are establishing them for varied purposes and student populations, including first-year interest groups, general education core courses, gateway courses, developmental and basic studies, honors programs, and work in the major or minor. For implementation, faculty and administrators must be clear about what they expect to accomplish. (MSE) iii
A study examined the influence of supplemental instruction (SI) on peer relations at a community college. The participants were students in 19 general education courses at a community college who joined SI workshops and students in the same courses who did no join SI workshops. It was found that in comparison to attendance rates for all students in regular courses, student attendance at the workshops was high and remained high for the duration of the semester. Of the students attending the workshops, 98 percent agreed or strongly agreed that they would recommend the workshops to other students and 82 percent regarded the workshops as helping them to join other students in a study group. SI was positively but not strongly correlated to different kinds of extracurricular activity and was more strongly correlated with studying with other students and with joining and meeting outside class with other students for the purpose of studying. The results indicate that SI workshops had a moderate affect on student relationships. Suggestions for future research are provided.ii
An invitation to relational responsibility -- Relational resonsibility in practice -- A case in point -- When stories have wings : how relational responsibility opens new options for action / David L. Cooperrider and Diana Whitney -- Collaborative learning communities / Harlene Anderson -- Relational moves and generative dances / Ian Burkitt -- On being relational in an accountable way: the questions of agency and power / John W. Lannamann -- The uncertain path to dialogue : a meditation / Sallyann Roth -- Relational responsibility : deconstructive possibilities / Mary Gergen -- Relational responsibility or dialogic ethics? a questioning of McNamee and Gergen / Stanley Deetz and William J. White -- Responding and relating : response-ability to individuals, relating, and difference / Michael J. Mazanec and Steve Duck -- Co-constructing responsibility / Karl Tomm -- Inspiring dialogues and relational responsibility / Eero Riikonen -- Creating relational realities : responsible responding to poetic 'movements' and 'moments' / John Shotter and Arlene M. Katz -- Relational inquiry and relational responsibility : the practice of change / Robert Cottor and Sharon Cottor -- A circle of voices / Peggy Penn and Marilyn Frankfurt -- "Just like Max": learning in relation / Walter Eggers -- Waiting for the author / Maurizio Marzari -- Relational responsibility: the converging conversation. iv
This article outlines the author's efforts at incorporating constructivist teaching into her distance-learning classes. She describes two projects that feature collaborative virtual-learning communities. The article points out lessons learned by confronting barriers and describes benefits of utilizing various technologies such as e-mail, newsgroups and the World Wide Web. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.ii
The writer reflects on 40 years of teaching. He explores such areas as the continuities of teaching across the various levels, progressive teaching practice, issues of race in schools and society, teaching for understanding, teacher education, knowing the students, learning communities, teaching as a moral and intellectual formulation, and constructive pedagogy.ii
Part of a special section on schools as learning communities. In an introduction, the writer discusses developing learning organizations and communities and provides a brief overview of some of the articles in the special section. ii
This article presents modifications to Chickering's original theory of student psychosocial development. In Education and Identity (1969), Chickering proposed seven dimensions of identity and suggested that higher education should be concerned with those elements of self that were of greatest value to the individual and society. His theory was based on traditional-aged students from small liberal arts colleges. In revising the book, the writer and Chickering planned to review research based on the theory, incorporate new findings, modify the theory for a more diverse student population, and summarize the work of more recent student development theorists as context. The new theory refers to seven broad changes in students as they move through college or university experiences: developing competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence, developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity.ii
Shared cognition : thinking as social practice / Lauren B. Resnick -- A clash of conversational worlds : interpreting cognitive development through communication / Michael Siegal -- The social construction of meaning and cognitive activity in elementary school children / Anne-Nelly Perret-Clermont, Jean-Frangois Perret, and Nancy Bell -- Situating learning in communities of practice / Jean Lave -- A sociocultural approach to socially shared cognition / James V. Wertsch -- "It's About Winning!" The language of knowledge in baseball / Shirley Brice Heath -- Grounding in communication / Herbert H. Clark and Susan E. Brennan -- Conversation analysis and socially shared cognition / Emanuel A. Schegloff -- Constructing shared communicative environments / Robert M. Krauss and Susan R. Fussell. The information economy model applied to biological similarity judgment / James S. Boster -- Characterizing supporting environments for cognitive development : lessons from children in a museum / Rochel Gelman, Christine M. Massey, and Mary McManus -- Culture and socialization in work groups / John M. Levine and Richard L. Moreland -- The social organization of distributed cognition / Edwin Hutchins -- Cognitive and social processes in decision making / Reid Hastie and Nancy Pennington -- Sharing cognition through collective comprehension activity / Giyoo Hatano and Kayoko Inagaki -- Social interaction as apprenticeship in thinking : guided participation in spatial planning / Barbara Rogoff -- Collaborations among toddler peers : individual contributions to social contexts / Celia A. Brownell and Michael Sean Carriger -- Problems of direction in socially shared cognition / William Damon.iv
Residence halls and the college experience : past and present / Charles C. Schroeder, Phyllis Mable -- The impact of residential life on students / Ernest T. Pascarella, Patrick T. Terenzini, Gregory S. Blimling -- Creating a context for educational success / Richard Stimpson -- Achieving curricular objectives through residence halls / John D. Welty -- Guerilla education in residential life / Arthur Levine -- Creating campus climates that foster learning / George D. Kuh -- Connecting residence halls to the curriculum / Elizabeth J. Whitt, Elizabeth M. Nuss -- Developing learning communities / Charles C. Schroeder -- Helping students understand and appreciate diversity / Marvalene Hughes -- Increasing student involvement through civic leadership education / Suisan R. Komives -- Integrating living and learning in residential colleges / Terry B. Smith -- New perspectives for assessing the residential experience / David H. Kalsbeek -- Realizing the educational potential of residence halls : a mandate for action / Charles C. Schroeder, Phyllis Mable. iv
The writers describe the frameworks deemed to hold particular relevance for understanding academic learning at the college level. They examine attribution theory, college students' self-efficacy, social constructivism, and Freire's theory of conscientization. They also review theories tat either support or refute popular assumptions about the college classroom. The writers illustrate the connections between theories of learning and the implications for teaching by focusing on collaborative learning, peer teaching, learning communities, service learning, and technology, five specific strategies for the classroom that promote greater learning for college students.ii
A study examined the degree to which the use of learning communities and the adoption of collaborative learning strategies enhance student learning and persistence. Participants were 121 students from the Coordinated Studies Program (CSP) at Seattle Central Community College and 166 comparison group students who filled out questionnaires that measured student engagement in classroom and out-of-classroom behaviors. There were also three site visits focusing exclusively on the views of the CSP group. Results revealed that students in the CSP group persisted to the following spring and fall quarters at a significantly higher rate than students in the regular classes. Students in the CSP group reported being substantially more involved in academic activities and activities involving other students than students from the comparison group. The results show that it is possible to promote student involvement and achievement through collaborative learning in settings where such involvement is not easily attained.ii
The developing body of literature on multicultural concerns in adult education, on feminist theory, and on critical and feminist pedagogies provides insights for adult educators grappling with the complex issues surrounding the creation of inclusive learning environments. Educators must be aware of the politics of knowledge production and dissemination: what counts as knowledge, who is involved in its production, and their relative positions in the power structure are determinants of curricular and instructional decisions. They must also consider the effects of structural privilege and oppression in the learning environment. Studies of a variety of educational settings demonstrate how power dynamics based on the intersections of gender, race, and class determine whose ideas are valued, who speaks, and who remains silent in the adult classroom. The many kinds of feminism have developed numerous theories about power relations and social structures that inform feminist pedagogy. Recurring themes underlying feminist teaching strategies involve how knowledge is constructed, voice, authority, and dealing with difference. A synthesis of the psychologically oriented and liberatory models of feminist pedagogy yields insights for the creation of inclusive adult learning environments. Rather than prescribing approaches, these insights highlight issues and teaching practices that adult educators should consider in the quest to create democratic classrooms in which every voice can be heard.iii
The writer discusses the partnership between Houghton College teachers-in-training and Cuba-Rushford School. This partnership brought new insights for integrating the curriculum, established collegial relationships, and created a forum for extending multiple intelligences teaching approaches into practical learning tasks in the classroom. ii
If Greek letter organizations understand, confront, and resolve the challenges facing them, they can help in the creation of true learning communities that enhance the quality of the student experience. To achieve this, Greek letter organizations should redefine their priorities and align those priorities with the educational goals of higher education, have strong leaders to initiate and implement change, promote member and group involvement on campus, follow a plan based on sound policies and procedures, and foster widespread institutional commitment and involvement." ii
The writers outline a three-year scenario that aims to help teachers in the reconceptualization and performance of their work as both learning and teaching. The first year of the scenario involves an evaluation year, during which teachers would identify needs and plan for the second year; the second year involves a learning and development year, during which teachers would have a reduced course load and engage in a range of learning activities; and the third year involves a consolidation year, during which teachers return to a regular course load with the understanding that they implement, innovate, and refine practices developed during the previous year. The success of this scenario depends on educational leaders and the public recognizing the importance of providing support for teacher learning with time and resources. ii
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